In this work, we systematically investigate the remote identification (Remote ID) technology for civil unmanned aircraft, following a logical path from policy, standards, technology, to applications. Our focus is on the role of Remote ID as the cornerstone for safe supervision and efficient airspace utilization, thereby supporting the high-quality development of the low-altitude economy, especially within the context of the rapidly evolving China UAV industry. We first review the regulatory frameworks in the United States, Europe, and China, highlighting the mandatory requirements and the latest standardization efforts. Then, we delve into the technical aspects of broadcast-based and network-based Remote ID, as well as cooperative and non-cooperative identification methods. Finally, we identify key challenges, including information security, privacy, real-time performance, and reliability in complex environments, with particular emphasis on the integration of 5G-A technologies for future China UAV operations.
1 Introduction
The low-altitude economy has been formally integrated into China’s national strategic plan since the release of the National Comprehensive Three-Dimensional Transportation Network Planning Outline in 2021. This milestone marks the official recognition of the low-altitude economy as a key driver for national development. In 2024 and 2025, the low-altitude economy was consecutively highlighted in the Government Work Report of the National People’s Congress, further underscoring its importance. According to the 2024 Civil Aviation Development Statistical Bulletin released by the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) in May 2025, the number of registered unmanned aircraft increased by 98.5% compared to the end of 2023, and the cumulative flight hours in 2024 grew by 15.4% year-on-year. Statistics from the Shenzhen Bureau of Statistics in February 2026 show that the “low-altitude economy and aerospace” sector in Shenzhen’s strategic emerging industries reached 350.61 billion yuan in 2025, a year-on-year increase of 31%, ranking first among 20 industries in growth rate.
However, the rapid expansion of the low-altitude economy also brings severe airspace safety and management challenges. The limited supervision means for low-altitude airspace have led to problems such as illegal intrusions, rogue flights disturbing aviation, and privacy violations, posing real threats to public safety and aviation security. To address these challenges, the ability to identify, monitor, and manage low-altitude flight activities is essential. Remote ID technology acts as a “digital license plate” and a “real-time beacon” for each unmanned aircraft, enabling regulators and authorized airspace users to perceive and obtain the aircraft’s identity, position, and status in real time. This function allows low-altitude supervision to shift from a “passive response” mode to “active early warning” and “intelligent dispatching.” In China, the national mandatory standard GB 46750-2025 already requires that all China UAV systems must simultaneously support both broadcast-based and network-based Remote ID, with an update interval not exceeding 1 second.
In this study, we adopt the first-person perspective of our research team to present a comprehensive analysis of Remote ID technology for civil unmanned aircraft. We follow the logical thread of “policy – standard – technology – application” to provide a systematic overview. The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 surveys international and domestic policies, regulations, and standards. Section 3 presents the technical details of Remote ID, including information composition, broadcast and network mechanisms, and a comparison of cooperative and non-cooperative identification. Section 4 discusses typical application scenarios. Section 5 summarizes the key challenges. Section 6 concludes the paper.
2 Policy, Regulation, and Standard Landscape
2.1 United States
The United States has a long history of open low-altitude airspace. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) exercises comprehensive jurisdiction over aviation safety and airspace use. The FAA’s 14 CFR Part 89, effective from December 2020, mandates that all unmanned aircraft requiring registration must be equipped with Remote ID. Three compliance methods are accepted: standard Remote ID unmanned aircraft (broadcasting via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth), unmanned aircraft equipped with a Remote ID broadcast module, and flying only within FAA-recognized identification areas. The standard requires that the Remote ID message include the UAV identification number (serial number or session ID), latitude/longitude, altitude, velocity, control station location, emergency status, and a timestamp. The broadcast must be receivable by personal wireless devices within range. ASTM standards F3411-22a and F3586-22 provide the technical specifications and compliance methods for Remote ID.
2.2 Europe
In Europe, the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) sets common rules for unmanned aircraft. The EU Delegated Regulation 2019/945 and Implementing Regulation 2019/947 establish a three-category framework: Open, Specific, and Certified. For Open category UAVs of classes C1, C2, and C3 (excluding tethered models), direct Remote ID is mandatory. The direct Remote ID messages must include the UAV registration number, unique physical serial number, geographic position and altitude, heading and ground speed, and the remote pilot’s position or take-off point. The European standard ASD-STAN prEN 4709-002 defines the technical implementation for broadcast-based Remote ID, specifying message content, value ranges, and transmission frequency. The EU U-space concept, developed by SESAR Joint Undertaking, envisions a stepwise evolution from basic services (U1) to full services (U4), with Remote ID being a foundational element.
2.3 3GPP Standard Progress
3GPP has been working on UAV communication standards since Release 15. Release 17 introduced requirements for Remote ID via 3GPP systems in TS 22.125, enabling UTM (Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management) to associate UAVs with their control stations and obtain real-time identity and position information. Release 18 (TS 23.256) specifies the architecture for 5G NR to support broadcast-based Remote ID via PC5 (A2X) and MBS (Multicast-Broadcast Services) over the Uu interface. These standards ensure that Remote ID messages comply with regional regulatory formats (e.g., ASTM F3411 or ASD-STAN prEN 4709-002). In Release 19, TR 22.843 further analyzes enhancements for UAV applications, including security aspects. The integration of 5G-A (5G-Advanced) capabilities, such as integrated sensing and communication, will enable future Remote ID systems to evolve from simple identity reporting to multi-dimensional perception and intelligent decision-making, which is particularly relevant for the next generation of China UAV systems.
2.4 China’s Domestic Standards Progress
China has rapidly developed a comprehensive regulatory and standard framework for UAVs. The Interim Regulations on the Flight Management of Unmanned Aircraft took effect on January 1, 2024, mandating real-name registration, unique product identification codes, and identification information reporting. The mandatory national standard GB 42590-2023, effective June 1, 2024, includes 17 safety requirements including Remote ID, electronic fencing, and emergency handling. In 2025, several new national standards were released:
- GB 46761-2025 – “Civil Unmanned Aircraft Real-Name Registration and Activation Requirements” (effective May 1, 2026) specifies the overall process and technical requirements for registration and activation.
- GB 46860-2025 – “Civil Unmanned Aircraft Unique Product Identification Code” (effective January 1, 2027) defines a 20-character coding structure for product identification, as shown in the formula below.
- GB 46750-2025 – “Civil Unmanned Aircraft System Operation Identification Specification” (effective May 1, 2026) specifies the information content, format, and performance requirements for both broadcast-based and network-based Remote ID, requiring a maximum update interval of 1 second and prohibiting the use of ADS-B for Remote ID.
These standards collectively ensure that every China UAV is uniquely identifiable and traceable throughout its lifecycle, providing a solid foundation for the low-altitude economy.
The structure of the unique product identification code defined in GB 46860-2025 is:
$$
\text{UPC} =
\begin{cases}
14\text{-bit manufacturer code} + 6\text{-bit serial number}, & \text{for factory products} \\
14\text{-bit assembler code} + 6\text{-bit serial number}, & \text{for assembled products}
\end{cases}
$$
The code is 20 characters in total. Each UAV must transmit this code both via network to the supervision platform and via radio broadcast with an interval not exceeding 1 second.
3 Technical Analysis of Remote Identification
3.1 Remote ID Information Composition
According to GB 46750-2025, a Remote ID data packet must contain the data type, version number, data length, data identifier, and data content items. The data identifier is a multi-byte field where each bit indicates whether a corresponding data item is transmitted (1 = sent, 0 = not sent). Table 1 summarizes the mandatory and optional data items defined in the standard.
| Data Item Index | Item Name | Mandatory/Optional | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Unique Product ID | Mandatory | 20-character unique identifier for the UAV |
| 002 | Registration Flag | Mandatory | Last 8 characters of the registration number |
| 003 | Operation Category | Optional | Open, Specific, or Certified |
| 004 | UAV Classification | Mandatory | Micro, Light, Small, Medium, Large |
| 005 | Control Station Location Type | Mandatory | Take-off point or current station |
| 006 | Control Station Position | Mandatory | Latitude/Longitude |
| 007 | Control Station Altitude | Mandatory | Geodetic height |
| 008 | UAV Position | Mandatory | Latitude/Longitude |
| 009 | Track Angle | Mandatory | Measured clockwise from true north |
| 010 | Ground Speed | Mandatory | Relative speed over ground |
| 011 | Relative Height | Optional | Height above take-off point |
| 012 | Vertical Speed | Optional | Rate of climb/descent |
| 013 | Geodetic Height | Mandatory | Height above ellipsoid |
| 014 | Pressure Altitude | Optional | Altitude referenced to 101.325 kPa |
| 015 | Operation Status | Mandatory | Ground, Air, Emergency, or Failure codes |
| 016 | Coordinate System Type | Mandatory | WGS-84 or other |
| 017 | Horizontal Accuracy | Mandatory | Position uncertainty |
| 018 | Vertical Accuracy | Mandatory | Altitude uncertainty |
| 019 | Speed Accuracy | Mandatory | Speed uncertainty |
| 020 | Timestamp | Mandatory | Unix time in milliseconds |
| 021 | Timestamp Accuracy | Mandatory | Precision of timestamp encoding |
The total data packet format is shown in the equation below:
$$
\text{Packet} = \{\text{Type}, \text{Version}, \text{Length}, \text{DataID}, \text{Content}\}
$$
where the DataID is a sequence of bytes, with each bit controlling the inclusion of specific data items.
3.2 Broadcast-Based Remote ID
In broadcast-based Remote ID, the UAV periodically transmits identification messages over a wireless medium (Wi-Fi or Bluetooth) without addressing a specific receiver. Any device within range can receive and decode the message. The standard requires that a single broadcast receiver system be capable of simultaneously receiving, distinguishing, and parsing at least 50 different UAVs, with a processing latency of no more than 50 ms from reception to completion. This method is effective in areas with limited network coverage but suffers from short range (typically up to 1 km for Bluetooth 5.x, and up to 300 m for standard Wi-Fi) and vulnerability to interference.
3.3 Network-Based Remote ID
Network-based Remote ID uses cellular networks (4G/5G/5G-A) or satellite networks to transmit identification data to a central supervision platform. This approach provides wide-area coverage, low latency, and bidirectional communication. GB 46750-2025 requires that the network-based system be capable of processing all UAVs within its service area, with a processing latency not exceeding 1 second. If a transmission fails, the UAV must cache the failed data and automatically retransmit when communication is restored. Figure 1 below illustrates a typical supervision architecture based on mobile communication networks for China UAV operations. The system integrates real-name registration, activation, pre-flight authorization, in-flight status reporting, and post-flight data logging.
The network-based approach is highly reliable in well-covered urban areas but faces challenges in remote regions or during network congestion. The ongoing deployment of 5G-A networks in China significantly enhances the capability of network-based Remote ID, offering higher data rates, lower latency, and integrated sensing capabilities that can complement cooperative identification with non-cooperative detection.
3.4 Comparison of Cooperative and Non-Cooperative Identification
Cooperative identification relies on the UAV voluntarily sending its identity and status. Remote ID is a typical cooperative method. Non-cooperative identification uses passive sensing techniques (optical, acoustic, radar, radio frequency) to detect and identify UAVs that do not actively transmit identification information. Table 2 presents a comprehensive comparison of these methods.
| Technology | Target Type | Principle | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Broadcast Remote ID | Cooperative | Wi-Fi/Bluetooth broadcast | Simple, low cost, easy deployment | Short range, dependent on active broadcast |
| Network Remote ID | Cooperative | Cellular/satellite network uplink | Long range, traceable, bidirectional | Requires network coverage, may fail without signal |
| Optical Recognition | Non-cooperative | Visible/infrared imaging | Intuitive, high spatial resolution | Sensitive to weather and lighting |
| Acoustic Recognition | Non-cooperative | Microphone array + spectral analysis | Low cost, passive, works in dark | Susceptible to background noise |
| Radar Recognition | Non-cooperative | Micro-Doppler and RCS analysis | Long range, all-weather | Limited for small/slow targets, multipath interference |
| Radio Frequency Recognition | Non-cooperative | RF fingerprint of control signals | Concealed, high specificity | UAV must be actively transmitting |
| Fusion Recognition | Both | Multi-sensor data fusion | Complementary strengths, robust | High complexity and computing cost |
In the context of China UAV, the future trend is to integrate cooperative Remote ID with non-cooperative sensing through 5G-A networks. The integrated sensing and communication (ISAC) capability of 5G-A allows the network itself to detect unauthorized UAVs, thereby enhancing overall airspace safety.
4 Typical Application Scenarios
The Remote ID function is crucial for enabling safe and efficient operations across various low-altitude applications. In China, several typical scenarios have emerged:
- Logistics and Delivery: UAVs for last-mile delivery, such as those operated by SF Express in Anhui and Wuxi, use Remote ID to ensure coordinated flight paths and avoid collisions. The real-time broadcast of identity and position allows the traffic management system to optimize routes and maintain safety, especially in urban environments where multiple drones operate simultaneously.
- Urban Governance: Police departments in Shenzhen have deployed 149 drone patrol routes with over 20,000 flight hours. Remote ID enables command centers to verify the identity of each drone and distinguish authorized flights from rogue ones, thus supporting traffic management, anti-drug operations, and public security.
- Emergency Rescue: In disaster scenarios, such as the floods in Mentougou, Beijing, tethered drones with 5G communication capabilities provided temporary network coverage over 80 km². Remote ID allowed the command center to track all participating UAVs, assign tasks, and prevent airspace conflicts.
- Agricultural Plant Protection: In Ninghe District, Tianjin, more than 40 agricultural UAVs are deployed daily to spray pesticides over 40,000–50,000 mu (approx. 2,700–3,300 hectares). Remote ID ensures that each drone’s status and location are known to the ground station, enabling efficient fleet management and operation traceability.
- Cultural Tourism: Drone light shows in many Chinese cities rely on large coordinated swarms. Remote ID allows regulators to monitor each drone’s identity and flight path, ensuring public safety and compliance with airspace restrictions.
All these applications benefit from the mandatory Remote ID requirement for China UAV, which provides a baseline for airspace integration and public trust.
5 Key Challenges
5.1 Information Security
Remote ID messages are vulnerable to spoofing, replay, and jamming attacks. An attacker with a low-cost software-defined radio can broadcast fake identification messages, impersonate a legitimate UAV, or inject false location data. To mitigate this, robust authentication mechanisms such as digital signatures and timestamp verification are needed. However, the limited computational power of small UAVs poses constraints. In the context of China UAV, the standard GB 46750-2025 requires that the system use anti-tamper design and that failed network transmissions be cached and retransmitted automatically, but cryptographic protection is not yet mandated at the message level. Future standards should incorporate lightweight encryption and integrity checks.
5.2 Privacy Protection
The continuous broadcasting of UAV identity and control station location raises significant privacy concerns. For instance, the unique product ID and real-time position of the remote pilot can be tracked by any receiving device, potentially exposing personal travel patterns and activities. Moreover, even though the Remote ID message does not contain imaging data, the precise location of the UAV combined with public maps can infer the area being observed, leading to “reverse surveillance.” In network-based Remote ID, data aggregation at a central server introduces risks of data breaches and misuse. Balancing transparency and privacy is a critical challenge for the widespread adoption of Remote ID in China UAV operations.
5.3 Performance and Environmental Reliability
Real-time performance is essential for collision avoidance and effective monitoring. The 1-second update interval specified by GB 46750-2025 may be insufficient for high-speed UAVs (e.g., fixed-wing models flying at 100 km/h, which would move about 28 meters between updates). Moreover, broadcast range limitations (Wi-Fi/Bluetooth) and network coverage gaps in rural or mountainous areas can lead to data loss. The complex electromagnetic environment in urban areas further degrades signal quality. Therefore, adaptive transmission mechanisms and robust error correction codes are necessary. A typical performance requirement can be expressed as:
$$
\text{Max position error} = \max\left( v \cdot \Delta t, \sigma_{\text{pos}} \right)
$$
where \( v \) is the UAV speed, \( \Delta t \) is the update interval, and \( \sigma_{\text{pos}} \) is the positioning uncertainty. For a UAV with \( v = 30\,\text{m/s} \) and \( \Delta t = 1\,\text{s} \), the maximum error due to timing alone is 30 m, which may be unacceptable for dense airspace.
5.4 Non-Cooperative Target Identification
Cooperative Remote ID only works for compliant UAVs that actively broadcast. Malicious or malfunctioning UAVs can disable their Remote ID function, rendering them invisible to the supervision system. To counter this, non-cooperative identification methods (optical, acoustic, radar, RF) must be deployed. However, each method has limitations. A promising approach is to leverage the sensing capabilities of 5G-A networks, where base stations can perform passive radar-like detection of UAVs by analyzing reflected signals. This fusion of cooperative and non-cooperative identification is a key research direction for future China UAV traffic management.
5.5 Fragmentation of Technical Standards
Different regions have adopted different technical standards for Remote ID. The US relies on ASTM F3411 (Wi-Fi/Bluetooth broadcast only), Europe uses ASD-STAN prEN 4709-002, and China mandates both broadcast and network modes with specific data formats. These differences create barriers for global UAV manufacturers, as a single product must support multiple protocols to operate across markets. Harmonization efforts at the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and within 3GPP are ongoing, but full convergence remains a long-term goal. For China UAV, aligning with international standards while preserving domestic requirements is a delicate balance.
6 Conclusion
Remote identification technology is fundamental to the safe and efficient development of the low-altitude economy, especially for China UAV applications. In this paper, we have provided a comprehensive review of the policy, standards, technology, and challenges associated with Remote ID. Our analysis shows that while regulatory frameworks are maturing globally, significant technical hurdles remain in security, privacy, performance, and standardization. The ongoing evolution of 5G-A networks, with their integrated sensing and communication capabilities, offers a promising pathway to overcome many of these challenges. Future work should focus on developing harmonized international standards, lightweight cryptographic protocols for Remote ID messages, and fusion architectures that combine cooperative and non-cooperative identification. By addressing these challenges, the full potential of the low-altitude economy can be realized, benefiting industries ranging from logistics to public safety.